Lithography in IRAN

Mohammed-Reza Riazi

We Iranians perception of art like our outlook to all other affairs is one of emotional. Sometimes we are in love but quickly free ourselves and often we are indifferent. The Iranians perception resembles Iran’s unbalanced climate; sometimes too hot and other times too cold. Sometimes it is showery and flooded but other times dry with no rain. Perhaps the effects of this climate have caused us to go to extremes or fall short. Sometimes we exaggerate about a period in our history and sometimes ignore another and at times we all become slaves to fashion. The same perception also applies towards evaluation of Qajar art especially painting and illustration. Most of the authors who have written on Iranian art of illustration, painting and book illustration have ignored the Qajar hand written manuscripts and lithographic books believing that they lack artistic merit. The reason maybe that the Qajar style is a hybrid with fake appearance or an inept and uncertain imitation of European techniques of engraving and perspective and an impression of Iranian composition and narrative method.

Today we are faced with a significant number of Qajar artworks with varying qualities but in the past few decades illustrated books and paintings have become more popular as a result of people’s interest in art. Numerous exhibitions, unprecedented prices in recent auctions and local and foreign collectors’ enthusiasm for buying Qajar artworks attest to that. So what is attractive about Qajar paintings?

Even the most passionate defenders of Iranian art of painting are dubious to consider Qajar paintings and illustrated books as precious as artworks of the Safavid and Teymouri eras. In fact, Qajar artworks cannot be accounted as one the most sublime works of art and certainly their illustrated books do not parallel works of Sultan Mohammad or Kamal-e-din Behzad. Despite the shortcomings though, they have pleasant characteristics. Most Qajar paintings are relatively clumsy, simple and artificial but in harmony with the daily life of people and to an acceptable degree reflect the situation at that time.

During the Qajar period an unprecedented situation emerged and Iranians became engaged in endless political, social, economical and cultural struggles with European governments. Up to that time there had never been such close and continuous contacts between Iran and Europe. These contacts greatly influenced our country’s arts and crafts and since the second half of the 17th century. European style of painting had already influenced Iranian painting and this impression are always measured by Mohammad Zaman’s paintings. The influence continued on to the Zandieh and Afsharieh periods but it wasn’t so widespread. Since the time of Fath Ali Shah Qajar it turned into a national style but painters and illustrators did not follow European style consciously. For example, Mohammad Sedigh is among such artists in Zandieh period. His works are precise in terms of execution but his portraits are clearly the European type and it seems that he and his contemporary artists imitated European styles. Ali Ashraf is also another representative of the Zandieh period. His works despite excellence lack diversity.

The Qajars began their rule since 1779 and seemingly even before coming to power, they supported art and had at least one great painter at their own service called Mirza Baba. Mirza Baba’s illustrated work is a good standard for recognizing early Qajar artworks. He started his paintings in large sizes and was given the royal painter title. In order to convey Fath Ali Shah’s reputation and grandeur to Europeans, he constantly accepted orders. One of these orders is a painting of Fath Ali Shah’s court that was sent to the brother of George III, king of England. In 1798 he painted a single portrait for Fath Ali Shah in actual size. He initiated a special style of portraiture and his students followed the style.

Mehr Ali’s portraits of Fath Ali Shah are also quite famous. He made several paintings on the walls of palaces and drew portraits of old kings on the walls of Isfahan’s palaces. He painted characters according to his own imagination and even wrote their names. This method enabled ordinary viewers to recognize Iranians from Europeans for example, Fereydoon or Anoushirvan from Alexander. His style was imitated by other too. His influence is evident in the books of illustrators especially lithographic prints. One of Mehr Ali’s students is Abolhasan Ghafari known as Sani al-Molk. He is the most acclaimed painter, portraitist and book illustrator of the second half of the 19th century.

During the Qajar period lacquer, enameled and glass painting became very popular and artists instead of illustrating books painted on bowls, dishes, pot covers, saucers, spoons, mirror frames, book covers and penholders. The skill of Qajar painters, therefore, must be sought in this type of works. Lacquer painting was the most profitable branch of painting and it almost replaced book illustration.  In lacquer and enameled painting European styles and subjects were more favored. Unfortunately most of the models were cheap and distasteful French plates the contents of which included epicurean young men in home attire and official hats and seductive women with rimmed hats and fake and coquettish smiles.

History of print in Iran

About the history of print in Iran prior to Qajar period it must be said that Iranians have long precedence in communicating their thoughts and mind in written form. During the fourth millennium B.C. the making of flat seals with variety of patterns was prevalent and since the third millennium B.C. cylindrical seals often with inscriptions and images were extensively used in commercial, political and administrative affairs.

Early in the second millennium B.C. a type of mud print became popular in Ilam and writers inscribed their texts on wood or stones and pressed them onto mud. An example is the mud inscriptions in Chogha Znabil temple. Over hundreds of mud prints would be produced from one text of which some examples have been used in the temple’s faç'8dade. Perhaps, this is the oldest method of reproduction in terms of print in the world.

Use of seals throughout history in Iran (since the Achaemenians until end Sassanid periods) was prevalent. With the onset of the Islamic period that accompanied appearance of paper, use of seals became limited and digits replaced it. In 1293 the economic situation in Iran had turmoil and the government because of the shortage of silver had a rough time in minting coins. In the same year the idea of printing paper bills following China was first brought forth by Sadredin Zanjani and paper money was published in Iran for the first time by the name of Chaav but shortly after, it coincided with people’s mass uprising and the work came to a halt.

Apparently, this initiative on the part of government that deemed an abuse to the people left an undesirable impression of print in the minds of Iranians and brought the addition of a few new terms to the Persian language. Among them the Chinese word of Chaav meant paper money and Chaap, a Sanskrit term meant printed text and picture on paper and the Turkish term, Basmeh meant print and picture. It seems that the Chinese term Chaav and Chaap in Sanskrit have common roots. The first real printing machine was made and operated during the Safavid period in Isfahan and between the years 1633-1640 The Armenians of Isfahan set up a lead printing machine in Jolfa and in 1640 they printed a book in Armenian. Until the time of Fath Ali Shah, however, the public did not show much interest in print.

Characteristics of lead and lithographic print illustrated books

The Qajars began their rule in 1779 and continued on until 1925. The Qajar art in terms of style can be divided into two precedent and recent periods meaning the era of Fath Ali Shah 1797-1810 and one of Nassereddin Shah 1847-1896. In the first period despite the growing interest in western art, artists reflected on past traditions and Fath Ali Shah with overwhelming magnificence tried to portray himself in the same status as the Achaemenian and Sassanid kings but during the rule of Nassereddin Shah more well-grounded injections of western influence entered the arteries of Iranian art. Nassereddin Shah dressed as European kings and traveled to Europe three times out of keen interest and sent many individuals to Europe to study.

Book publication in the Qajar period increased out of public interest and people’s awareness of the developments in Europe, and many books in literature, history, geography and religion were written, copied and translated but unlike in the past, handwritten books were no longer considered as objects of luxury and show off and politicians sought their means of show off in paintings, lacquer paintings in the form of covers, penholders and enameled paintings on household items (bowls, dishes and spoons). Besides, foreigners showed interest in this kind of artwork and purchased them. Many of the Qajar artists, therefore, turned to this kind of art.

Majority of Qajar manuscripts are plain, simple and illustrated according to past principles. They all bore title, illustration and illustrative boarders. While a considerable number of these manuscripts were very simple yet literary and religious books had the largest share. In addition, in the Qajar period patchwork also became very popular and a number of calligraphy and painting patchworks were produced for politicians that are valuable as far as quality, calligraphy, illustration and imagery. It should be noted that changes appeared in the type of color, form of headings, illustration and illustrative boarders. Qajar artists had special interest in a hue of yellow that’s even evident in Qajar period tile works. Also, in book layout a variety of European flower motifs were used along with Iranian motifs and changes appeared on the headings as well among them the lion and the sun and winged angels, etc.

The pictures of the precedent period or the time of Fath Ali Shah the imagery of characters were inspired by portraits of Fath Ali Shah and the royals. Majority of the pictures have a nature backdrop or Qajar and European architecture that to some extent implies perspective and the illustrative style of the school of Isfahan in the Safavid period is evident in them. In the pictures of the second period or the time of Nassereddin Shah the western influence became more obvious and artists became more skilled in drawing perspective and contrast. The characters in illustrated books are dressed like Nassereddin Shah.

Publication of printed books in the Qajar period began in Tabriz with generous help from the dignitaries and supports of Abbas Mirza. Book printing began in 1817 in Tabriz. Apparently, Mirza Saleh Shirazi and Agha Zein al-Abedin bought lead print machines from Russia and set them up in Tabriz.

Publication of lead print books is usually divided into two periods. The first period includes 1817-1852. In this period lead print books are similar to manuscripts in terms of page layout and order and complete information about the author, translator, date and place of print is printed on the back of the first page and usually the name of printer or illustrator is mentioned because of the significance of their work. With the start of lithography in 1843 and its popularity, lead print became obsolete until 1874. However, it since prospered again until 1924. The books of this period underwent great changes as far as appearance and contents. Book standards are observed in printing and title page, erratum, index of contents, proper nouns and publisher’s name are included.  Also the size of the book and style of prose changes. Style of prose in the second period is easier and more comprehendible. Also they have more subject versatility and book translation also becomes prevalent. As far as illustration the only illustrated publication in the first period is Mokhtarnameh published in 1845. This book has eight series of pictures illustrated by Aligholi by technique of etching.

In the second period use of pictures and print by etching becomes popular and numbers of second period books have images in the form of pictures. The headings in lead print books of the first period portray a crown with two symmetrical images of lion and the sun on both sides and in the middle in a citron shaped image the phrase “Mohammad is better than all prophets” were written. In the printed books of the second period the lions were given a sword and the sun is always shinning behind the lions. The lion and the sun represent the book’s guardian and fortune. Among astronomy scholars the seven stars are happy in some zodiac signs and bring good fortune to the people of the world. That sign is the star’s home or honor. That’s why the sign of lion is both home and honor of the sun. In the second period the number of illustrated books notably increased.

On the quality of lead print books in terms of content, portraiture and backgrounds they are the same style as lithographic books but they lack the same quality because in the technique of etching the illustrator’s skill in drawing and etching is very much required.

In 1931 Mirza Saleh Shirazi who had been dispatched to Russia to learn the technique of lithography brought back a lithographic printing machine. He published the first lithographic print book which was a copy of the Koran in Tabriz. In 1843 Agha Abdol Ali Nami set up a lithographic printing machine in Tehran and published history of Ajam and in 1844 the book Hadaegh al-Shia was published in lithographic print. In 1259 A.H. Leili and Majnoon the first illustrated book by Maktabi a poet from Shiraz was printed in Tabriz. This book has four pictures illustrated with black ink and written in Nastaliq and after print the pictures have been manually colored. During the years 1844-1853 lead and lithographic printing shops were set up in many cities in Iran such as Isfahan, Shiraz, Mashad, Rasht, and Orumieh. Once the lithographic printing shops were set up people showed a lot of interest in this kind of printing and almost from 1852 lithographic print replaced lead and it was the only method of print prevalent in Iran in 1852-1874.

From 1874 however, lead print became popular again as new machines were brought into the country. Publication of lithographic books continued for over 60 years from 1843 until 1911. It seems that the Iranian people were more inclined towards lithographic print because there were a lot of errors in lead prints and the individuals of the profession played no role in designing letters. Besides, calligraphy was always considered a great national art and promoters of print did not wish for lead print to replace this art. Illustration in lithographic print books follows the skill of the painter who should be able to draw the details with printing ink but lead print requires the technique of etching and the artist must be adept in wood engraving and painting.

Usually book illustrators were not top notch artists because during the Qajar period first class artists usually took on lacquer, enameled and glass paintings that were more profitable. Book illustrators were more content painters who illustrated books along with making other artifacts. Unfortunately, many of the illustrated lithographic books do not contain the name of the illustrator but a few have mentioned their names in the books such as Mostafa who’s the illustrator of Nezami’s Khamseh book in 1883. The pictures in this book accompany Mostafa’s name and the dates 1881 and 1882. The pictures are very beautiful and pleasant and the characters are wearing Qajari clothes especially Fereydoon who is portrayed among Nassereddin Shah’s delegation. He also illustrated a Shahnameh book in 1890. Considering the date of the pictures it is obvious that one year was spent for the book calligraphy and illustration before it was printed.

Aligholi Khoee is one of the most acclaimed illustrators of lead and lithographic print books of whom a few have remained. He also illustrated Mokhtarnameh by technique of etching. But his most prominent works are Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and Nezami’s Panj Ganj in 1847 until 1850. In both of these books Aligholi’s name is visible in a citron shaped figure. The pictures in this book are of large scale and occupy areas between the texts. The images are almost homogenous and utmost precision has been employed in drawing the details such as household items, clothing and hats and putting them in perspective. Most pictures have back drops and Qajar atmosphere has been observed in them. Khosrow in this book is wearing Qajari attire and his hat is like that of Fath Ali Shah. Details such as armband and belt have been emphasized and Khosrow’s face has been represented with curved eyebrows, big eyes and slender waist. Women are usually portrayed with round faces, raised cheeks and slender waists wearing vests over ruffled skirts. Other details such as patterns on clothing, curtains and carpets have been emphasized. The women’s faces almost look the same. In some pictures Khosrow is wearing Nassereddin Shah’s military uniform including epaulets, shoulder belt, trousers and boots. The pictures in this book while being simple are very attractive and reflect the spirit of Qajar period.

Among other Qajar period illustrators one is an unknown painter named Mohammad Ghasem. He has illustrated Panj Ganj. The illustrator’s other name in seen on an oval seal in the pictures. The pictures in this book are different according to the atmosphere and characters but Khosrow the hero in the book is wearing a Qajar army uniform. Women’s clothes are also different according to the atmosphere in the story and their activities. In this picture the artist has paid attention to perspective and backdrops.

Mirza Abbas was also another Qajar era book illustrator. He worked for the government and was a royal painter. His works are very powerful and reveal his high skills. He signed his works as al-Abd Abbas.

Mirza Alinaghi Shirazi was also another illustrator who printed pictures for the book Shamseh and Ghahghahe published in Lahore in 1913. We know that in 19th century the Persian language and literature was widespread in India and many books were published in lithographic print in India of the best Iranian painters and calligraphers.

The most prominent book illustrators however, are four Qajar artists by the names of Mehdi Mosavar al-Molk, Abolhassan Ghafari, Abu Torab Ghafari and Aghamirza Mousa.

Abolhassan is the most acclaimed painter of the second half of 19th century.  He was a disciple of Mehr Ali and went to Italy to learn painting. In 1853 he returned to Tehran and was given the title of ‘royal painter’ in Nassereddin Shah’s court. Since 1853 he took charge of supervising design and calligraphy of One Thousand and One Nights. This book is 1134 pages and contains over 1100 pictures. The pictures of this book are of excellent quality with vivid colors and an imaginary trend. The attires, characterizations and details are based on prevalent Qajar models. Although One Thousand and One Nights is handwritten but it is a prominent example of illustration in Qajar period. The illustrations of Dolat Alayhe Iran newspaper that were published in lithographic print and often included pictures of princes, politicians, military officials and scenes from royal life, was the best example of illustration in Qajar era. The pictures in this newspaper are among the most excellent lithographic print examples in Iran and his portraits, dramatization and etching are unparalleled.

The second person is Abu Torab Ghaffari. He was born in 1863 and in 1889 died at age 27. He worked in the Ministry of publishing and was illustrator for Sharaf-o-Sherafat newspaper. The first edition of Sharaf-o-Sherafat paper was published in 1882 and until 1309, eighty seven volumes were printed in folio with Nastaliq writing. The pictures of this newspaper introduced the greatest Iranian mystics. Many of these pictures are signed by Abutorab Ghaffari. Much attention has been paid in copying the pictures of characters and details of the faces and clothing are clearly visible.

The third artist is Mehdi Mosavar al-Molk who is one of the great painters and illustrators of the Qajar period. His works were printed in Sherafat newspaper published between the years 1896-1903 and sixty-six issues are available. The pictures of this newspaper are in the same style as those in Sharaf newspaper with utmost beauty and precision.

The fourth artist is Mousa Ibn Mirza Hassan known as Agha Mirza Mousa son of Hassan Momayez. He was quite skillful in copying portraits, etching and oil painting. After the death of Abu Torab Ghaffari in 1889 he took charge of illustrations for Sharaf newspaper. His pictures are very precise and realistic. He was also adept is picture retouching on glass. He died in 1901.

The best lithographic work of the Qajar period is the Dolat Alayhe Iran or Vaghaye al-Etefaghieh newspaper. Abolhassan Ghaffari worked on the illustrations from number 470 published in 1860 and the next 88 editions in a period of four years. The pictures in this newspaper belong to individuals whose names have been mentioned on various occasions. This newspaper is a masterpiece of painting, design, page layout and print in the Qajar era. The works of Abolhassan, Abutorab and Mosavar al-Molk that were printed in these newspapers received so much attention from the public that they reprinted and presented them to the people. After the death of Sani al-Molk the quality of print and design of Vaghaye al-Etefaghieh greatly diminished. Although lithographic print continued on until the 1880’s but never again works were produced as excellent as the works of these four artists.

If we are to briefly review lithographic books, it is necessary to note that during the 17th century a kind of art known as ‘westernized’ grew along the school of Isfahan art. This art while expressing Iranian subjects included an incomplete impression of western perspective, relief, landscaping elements and copying western paintings.

With the beginning of the Qajar period three painters by the names of Mehr Ali, Mirza Baba and Abdullah Khan founded the special Qajar style of painting. These three painters manifested their works in wall, canvas, lacquer and enameled paintings. During the Qajar period two kinds of artistic trends received much attention. The influence of western art in Iran and attention to pre-Islamic traditional Iranian art especially the Achaemenian and Sassanid arts that the Europeans promoted, resulted in European artworks and their technical experiences to receive attention on one hand and on the other hand the pre-Islamic Iranian plastic arts also had to be considered. This was while the artists possessed skill of Isfahan art and were required to present their impressions in a Qajari atmosphere. As a result these impressions are observed as Qajar paintings and illustrations. During the rule of Nassereddin Shah the influence of western art on Iranian art became more evident especially in the paintings of Abolhassan Ghaffari. For example, the illustration of One Thousand and One Nights unlike the previous works is not dry or ligneous and the faces are versatile. Mohammad Zaman in late Safavid period for the first time combined landscaping with portraiture. The influence of European painting in his works such as color shading, relief impression and perspective and attention to attire is evident. Mohammad Zaman’s style was influential on the works of Qajar artists.

Qajar artists paid attention to national, religious, epical and festive subjects. The great artists of Fath Ali Shah period because of their style were famed as westernized. Some of them such as Lotf Ali Souratgar had some knowledge of landscaping and panorama and paid attention to women’s clothing and make up. Other artists such as Mehr Ali, Mirza Baba and Agha Najaf observed rules of perspective in portraiture and dramatization to some extent. Most of these artists have left behind numerous paintings of Fath Ali Shah and Qajar princes.

Also, Gholar Aghasi should be mentioned who was one of the pioneers of tea shop painting (wall painting on tea shops). This artist had always had a subjective impression of the past events especially the Ashura and Shahnameh stories. His style of portraying faces and attires and details had a significant effect on lithographic print books.

The painters of Qajar period paid attention to faces and individual marks and made changes in portraying the figure of women and their clothing. They usually drew women with round faces, full cheeks, big gazelle eyes and parted hair and in some cases. They portrayed them with full figures and head coverings such as hats, scarves, kerchiefs, and coronets. In these pictures the women wore vests made of semi transparent thin cloths and at times crocheted heavy fabrics and loose fitting pants with sandals and long vest with tight belts reaching down the knees over the trousers. Men usually with or without beards, big eyes, curved eyebrows, tall and slender waist with tight and long robe with shawl or belts wrapped around the waist. This style is also employed in lithographic book in which illustrators generally had weak impression and understanding of the subjects and atmosphere however, strong imagination and satire is seen in them.

The lithographic books of the Qajar period were published in different sizes. Their page layouts is similar to Qajar manuscripts including heading, epigraph and epilogue. Most of the pictures are in square or rectangular frame in between the texts. The other occupying images are usually pots and flowers at times western motifs in addition to traditional plant motifs. Since lithographic pictures are black and white some of the book owners colored them after purchase.

In conclusion, book illustration since 1884 began to decline and illustrators were unable to employ a proper technique for the totally European style prevalent at the time and so gradually, book illustration descended to a futile imitation of Safavid models especially the school of Reza Abbasi.